Abstract: Perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) have emerged as a prominent research direction in optoelectronic devices due to their unique advantages. However, deep-blue PeLEDs still exhibit a significant performance gap compared to their red and green counterparts. This review summarizes the current primary approaches for optimizing the performance of deep-blue PeLEDs. Doping with halogen elements and metal ions represents the mainstream strategy for achieving a blue shift in the emission wavelength. Optimization of fabrication processes enables improved luminescence performance through morphological and dimensional control. We also discuss the current research status of lead-free deep-blue PeLEDs and compare the performance between lead-free and lead-containing devices. Finally, we provide perspectives on future research and industrial development directions for deep-blue PeLEDs.

深蓝光钙钛矿发光二极管：迈向高性能与无铅化器件

[1]AkkermanQA, D’InnocenzoV, AccorneroS, et al., 2015. Tuning the optical properties of cesium lead halide perovskite nanocrystals by anion exchange reactions. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 137(32):10276-10281.

[2]BaiWH, LiangMM, XuanTT, et al., 2023. Ligand engineering enables efficient pure red tin-based perovskite light-emitting diodes. Angewandte Chemie, 135(50):e202312728.

[3]BouzidiM, AlatawiAA, AlkathiriT, et al., 2025. Stable blue emission and sub-gap mediated UV photodetection in lead-free 1D CsCu₂Br₃ single crystals. Scientific Reports, 15:35882.

[4]ButkusJ, VashishthaP, ChenK, et al., 2017. The evolution of quantum confinement in CsPbBr₃ perovskite nanocrystals. Chemistry of Materials, 29(8):3644-3652.

[5]CaoYB, FuY, ZhouY, et al., 2025. Ultrapure and efficient electroluminescence in alkali metal doped inorganic perovskite quantum wires arrays. Nature Communications, 16(1):6053.

[6]ChenH, ZhuL, XueC, et al., 2021a. Efficient and bright warm-white electroluminescence from lead-free metal halides. Nature Communications, 12(1):1421.

[7]ChenH, LiMH, WangB, et al., 2021b. Structure, electronic and optical properties of CsPbX₃ halide perovskite: a first-principles study. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 862:158442.

[8]ChenY, WangRS, KuschG, et al., 2025. All-site alloyed perovskite for efficient and bright blue light-emitting diodes. Nature Communications, 16(1):3254.

[9]ChenYF, LuS, NanM, et al., 2023. Deep-blue CsPbBr₃ perovskite quantum dots via green polar solvent and short ligand engineering towards highly efficient light-emitting diodes. Advanced Optical Materials, 11(18):2300473.

[10]ChenYF, NanM, HeYX, et al., 2024. Z-type ligand enables efficient and stable deep-blue perovskite light-emitting diodes. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 16(17):22139-22146.

[11]ChenYM, ZhuHY, BabaianD, et al., 2025. Near-unity PLQY of Cs₃Cu₂X₅ (X=Cl, Br) for high-efficiency white light-emitting diodes with exceptional color quality. Advanced Materials, 37(21):2500083.

[12]ChengL, YiC, TongYF, et al., 2020. Halide homogenization for high-performance blue perovskite electroluminescence. Research, 2020:9017871.

[13]ChoH, KimYH, WolfC, et al., 2018. Improving the stability of metal halide perovskite materials and light-emitting diodes. Advanced Materials, 30(42):1704587.

[14]ChuZM, ZhangW, JiangJ, et al., 2023. Blue light-emitting diodes based on quasi-two-dimensional perovskite with efficient charge injection and optimized phase distribution via an alkali metal salt. Nature Electronics, 6(5):360-369.

[15]ChungI, SongJH, ImJ, et al., 2012. CsSnI₃: semiconductor or metal? High electrical conductivity and strong near-infrared photoluminescence from a single material. High hole mobility and phase-transitions. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 134(20):8579-8587.

[16]DingPB, KoPK, GengP, et al., 2024. Strongly confined and spectrally tunable CsPbBr₃ quantum dots for deep blue QD-LEDs. Advanced Optical Materials, 12(11):2302477.

[17]DongF, GuoYY, ZhangX, et al., 2024. Partially ionized amino acid salt enabling spatially vertical n-phase distribution of quasi-2D perovskite for efficient deep-blue light-emitting diodes. Advanced Optical Materials, 12(28):2401247.

[18]DongJC, LuFF, HanDY, et al., 2022. Deep-blue electroluminescence of perovskites with reduced dimensionality achieved by manipulating adsorption-energy differences. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 61(40):e202210322.

[19]DongJC, ZhaoB, JiHY, et al., 2025. Multivalent-effect immobilization of reduced-dimensional perovskites for efficient and spectrally stable deep-blue light-emitting diodes. Nature Nanotechnology, 20(4):507-514.

[20]FangWH, ZhangLJ, LuGH, et al., 2023. Preparation and research progress of lead-free perovskite light emitting diodes. Chinese Journal of Luminescence, 44(8):1422-1438.

[21]FengSC, ShenY, HuXM, et al., 2024. Efficient and stable red perovskite light-emitting diodes via thermodynamic crystallization control. Advanced Materials, 36(44):2410255.

[22]GaoCC, JiangYZ, SunCJ, et al., 2020. Multifunctional naphthol sulfonic salt incorporated in lead-free 2D tin halide perovskite for red light-emitting diodes. ACS Photonics, 7(8):1915-1922.

[23]GaoY, CaiQT, HeYF, et al., 2024. Highly efficient blue light-emitting diodes based on mixed-halide perovskites with reduced chlorine defects. Science Advances, 10(29):eado5645.

[24]GuoQX, ZhaoX, SongBX, et al., 2022. Light emission of self-trapped excitons in inorganic metal halides for optoelectronic applications. Advanced Materials, 34(52):2201008.

[25]HanTH, JangKY, DongYT, et al., 2022. A roadmap for the commercialization of perovskite light emitters. Nature Reviews Materials, 7(10):757-777.

[26]HanY, GuoZY, LiuSC, et al., 2025. Manipulating electron-phonon coupling for efficient tin halide perovskite blue LEDs. Advanced Materials, 37(25):2413895.

[27]HoeflerSF, TrimmelG, RathT, 2017. Progress on lead-free metal halide perovskites for photovoltaic applications: a review. Monatshefte für Chemie–Chemical Monthly, 148(5):795-826.

[28]HongYJ, YuCNM, JeH, et al., 2023. Perovskite nanocrystals protected by hermetically sealing for highly bright and stable deep-blue light-emitting diodes. Advanced Science, 10(23):2302906.

[29]HouHY, GeHR, ZengXY, et al., 2025. Bimetallic superlattice enhances efficiency and stability of top-emitting perovskite light-emitting diodes. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 17(23):34171-34181.

[30]JangKY, HwangSY, WooSJ, et al., 2024. Efficient deep-blue light-emitting diodes through decoupling of colloidal perovskite quantum dots. Advanced Materials, 36(39):2404856.

[31]JiYQ, WangYQ, YuanZX, et al., 2026. Structural modulation enables bright and efficient Cs–Cu–Cl electroluminescence. Advanced Materials, 38(15):e22256.

[32]JiangMW, LiL, QiZW, et al., 2025. Efficient Rec. 2020 compliant pure-green mixed-cation perovskite light-emitting diodes with multifunctional co-additives. Advanced Materials, 37(29):2503683.

[33]JiangYZ, CuiMH, LiSS, et al., 2021. Reducing the impact of Auger recombination in quasi-2D perovskite light-emitting diodes. Nature Communications, 12(1):336.

[34]JunT, SimK, IimuraS, et al., 2018. Lead-free highly efficient blue-emitting Cs₃Cu₂I₅ with 0D electronic structure. Advanced Materials, 30(43):1804547.

[35]KarlssonM, YiZY, ReichertS, et al., 2021. Mixed halide perovskites for spectrally stable and high-efficiency blue light-emitting diodes. Nature Communications, 12(1):361.

[36]KimJS, HeoJM, ParkGS, et al., 2022. Ultra-bright, efficient and stable perovskite light-emitting diodes. Nature, 611(7937):688-694.

[37]KoPK, GeJC, DingPB, et al., 2025. The deepest blue: major advances and challenges in deep blue emitting quasi-2D and nanocrystalline perovskite LEDs. Advanced Materials, 37(23):2407764.

[38]LeeGH, KimK, KimY, et al., 2024. Recent advances in patterning strategies for full-color perovskite light-emitting diodes. Nano-Micro Letters, 16(1):45.

[39]LeeS, KimJ, KimH, et al., 2024. Brightening deep-blue perovskite light-emitting diodes: a path to Rec. 2020. Science Advances, 10(20):eadn8465.

[40]LiMM, YangYG, KuangZY, et al., 2024. Acceleration of radiative recombination for efficient perovskite LEDs. Nature, 630(8017):631-635.

[41]LiN, XiaY, HeXY, et al., 2026. Dual-B-site strategy underpins stable unimodal deep-blue emitting perovskites. Advanced Materials, 38(7):e17517.

[42]LiX, GaoXP, ZhangXT, et al., 2021. Lead-free halide perovskites for light emission: recent advances and perspectives. Advanced Science, 8(4):2003334.

[43]LiX, ChenX, JiangHF, et al., 2024. Efficient deep-blue light-emitting diodes from highly luminescent Eu²⁺-doped alkali metal halide nanocrystals via lattice field modulation. Nano Letters, 24(22):6601-6609.

[44]LiuAQ, BiCH, GuoRQ, et al., 2021. Electroluminescence principle and performance improvement of metal halide perovskite light-emitting diodes. Advanced Optical Materials, 9(18):2002167.

[45]LiuSP, YangB, ChenJS, et al., 2020. Efficient thermally activated delayed fluorescence from all-inorganic cesium zirconium halide perovskite nanocrystals. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 59(49):21925-21929.

[46]LiuWW, QiaoYK, DengYY, et al., 2026. Advancements and challenges of highly efficient and stable perovskite light-emitting diodes. Laser & Photonics Reviews, 20(2):e01787.

[47]LiuXK, XuWD, BaiS, et al., 2021. Metal halide perovskites for light-emitting diodes. Nature Materials, 20(1):10-21.

[48]LuoJJ, YangLB, TanZF, et al., 2021. Efficient blue light emitting diodes based on europium halide perovskites. Advanced Materials, 33(38):2101903.

[49]NoelNK, StranksSD, AbateA, et al., 2014. Lead-free organic–inorganic tin halide perovskites for photovoltaic applications. Energy & Environmental Science, 7(9):3061-3068.

[50]ProtesescuL, YakuninS, BodnarchukMI, et al., 2015. Nanocrystals of cesium lead halide perovskites (CsPbX₃, X=Cl, Br, and I): novel optoelectronic materials showing bright emission with wide color gamut. Nano Letters, 15(6):3692-3696.

[51]RaviVK, MarkadGB, NagA, 2016. Band edge energies and excitonic transition probabilities of colloidal CsPbX₃ (X=Cl, Br, I) perovskite nanocrystals. ACS Energy Letters, 1(4):665-671.

[52]RenZW, WangK, SunXW, et al., 2021. Strategies toward efficient blue perovskite light-emitting diodes. Advanced Functional Materials, 31(30):2100516.

[53]RenZW, SunJY, YuJH, et al., 2022. High-performance blue quasi-2D perovskite light-emitting diodes via balanced carrier confinement and transfer. Nano-Micro Letters, 14(1):66.

[54]ShanQS, DongYH, XiangHY, et al., 2024. Perovskite quantum dots for the next-generation displays: progress and prospect. Advanced Functional Materials, 34(36):2401284.

[55]ShenC, FangSY, ZhangJB, et al., 2024. High performance and stable pure-blue quasi-2D perovskite light-emitting diodes by multifunctional zwitterionic passivation engineering. Advanced Photonics, 6(2):026002.

[56]ShenY, WuHY, LiYQ, et al., 2021. Interfacial nucleation seeding for electroluminescent manipulation in blue perovskite light-emitting diodes. Advanced Functional Materials, 31(45):2103870.

[57]ShenYL, YinJ, CaiB, et al., 2020. Lead-free, stable, high-efficiency (52%) blue luminescent FA₃Bi₂Br₉ perovskite quantum dots. Nanoscale Horizons, 5(3):580-585.

[58]SunLH, DongB, SunJ, et al., 2024. Efficient and stable multicolor emissions of the Coumarin-Modified Cs₃LnCl₆ lead-free perovskite nanocrystals and LED application. Advanced Materials, 36(18):2310065.

[59]TakahashiY, ObaraR, LinZZ, et al., 2011. Charge-transport in tin-iodide perovskite CH₃NH₃SnI₃: origin of high conductivity. Dalton Transactions, 40(20):5563-5568.

[60]TanZF, LiJH, ZhangC, et al., 2018. Highly efficient blue-emitting Bi-doped Cs₂SnCl₆ perovskite variant: photoluminescence induced by impurity doping. Advanced Functional Materials, 28(29):1801131.

[61]TanZK, MoghaddamRS, LaiML, et al., 2014. Bright light-emitting diodes based on organometal halide perovskite. Nature Nanotechnology, 9(9):687-692.

[62]TangWD, LiuSN, ZhangG, et al., 2025. Lead-free perovskite light-emitting diodes. Advanced Materials, 37(25):2411020.

[63]TodorovićP, MaDX, ChenB, et al., 2019. Spectrally tunable and stable electroluminescence enabled by rubidium doping of CsPbBr₃ nanocrystals. Advanced Optical Materials, 7(24):1901440.

[64]TongYF, BiXY, XuS, et al., 2023. In situ halide exchange of cesium lead halide perovskites for blue light-emitting diodes. Advanced Materials, 35(3):2207111.

[65]van der StamW, GeuchiesJJ, AltantzisT, et al., 2017. Highly emissive divalent-ion-doped colloidal CsPb_1–xM_xBr₃ perovskite nanocrystals through cation exchange. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 139(11):4087-4097.

[66]WangK, JinLR, GaoY, et al., 2021. Lead-free organic–perovskite hybrid quantum wells for highly stable light-emitting diodes. ACS Nano, 15(4):6316-6325.

[67]WangLT, ShiZF, MaZZ, et al., 2020. Colloidal synthesis of ternary copper halide nanocrystals for high-efficiency deep-blue light-emitting diodes with a half-lifetime above 100 h. Nano Letters, 20(5):3568-3576.

[68]WangTY, ZhouDL, WangYQ, et al., 2025. Lanthanide-based lead-free perovskite materials for visible-range and infrared light-emitting diodes. Advanced Functional Materials, 35(33):2504436.

[69]WeiS, HanX, ZhangK, et al., 2026. Stable energy-level regulation of NiO_x for efficient deep-blue perovskite LEDs. Advanced Materials, 38(36):e73478.

[70]WhiteheadCB, ÖzkarS, FinkeRG, 2019. LaMer’s 1950 model for particle formation of instantaneous nucleation and diffusion-controlled growth: a historical look at the model’s origins, assumptions, equations, and underlying sulfur sol formation kinetics data. Chemistry of Materials, 31(18):7116-7132.

[71]WongAB, BekensteinY, KangJ, et al., 2018. Strongly quantum confined colloidal cesium tin iodide perovskite nanoplates: lessons for reducing defect density and improving stability. Nano Letters, 18(3):2060-2066.

[72]WuYQ, YangSZ, LiEL, et al., 2025. Low-dimensional templates and delayed crystallization for high-quality tin-based perovskite films and high-performance transistors. Nature Communications, 16(1):9505.

[73]XiaML, YuanJH, NiuGD, et al., 2020. Unveiling the structural descriptor of A₃B₂X₉ perovskite derivatives toward X-ray detectors with low detection limit and high stability. Advanced Functional Materials, 30(24):1910648.

[74]XiaY, SongB, ZhangZP, et al., 2024. Vertically concentrated quantum wells enabling highly efficient deep-blue perovskite light-emitting diodes. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 63(22):e202403739.

[75]XingGC, MathewsN, LimSS, et al., 2014. Low-temperature solution-processed wavelength-tunable perovskites for lasing. Nature Materials, 13(5):476-480.

[76]XuB, YuanSC, WangLQ, et al., 2025. Highly efficient blue light-emitting diodes enabled by gradient core/shell-structured perovskite quantum dots. ACS Nano, 19(3):3694-3704.

[77]YangXY, MaL, YuMT, et al., 2023. Focus on perovskite emitters in blue light-emitting diodes. Light: Science & Applications, 12(1):177.

[78]YaoJY, LiuH, ChenZN, et al., 2025. Low-dimensional lead-free metal halides for efficient electrically driven light-emitting diodes. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 64(6):e202423185.

[79]YuMB, QinTX, GaoG, et al., 2025. Multiple defects renovation and phase reconstruction of reduced-dimensional perovskites via in situ chlorination for efficient deep-blue (454 nm) light-emitting diodes. Light: Science & Applications, 14(1):102.

[80]YuanS, WangZK, XiaoLX, et al., 2019. Optimization of low-dimensional components of quasi-2D Perovskite films for deep-blue light-emitting diodes. Advanced Materials, 31(44):1904319.

[81]YuanS, DaiLJ, SunYQ, et al., 2024. Efficient blue electroluminescence from reduced-dimensional perovskites. Nature Photonics, 18(5):425-431.

[82]YuanZ, ShuY, XinY, et al., 2016. Highly luminescent nanoscale quasi-2D layered lead bromide perovskites with tunable emissions. Chemical Communications, 52(20):3887-3890.

[83]ZengMX, ChenD, WangJJ, et al., 2023. Deep-blue perovskite light-emitting diodes realized by a dynamic interfacial ion exchange. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 15(30):36620-36627.

[84]ZhangF, ZhaoZH, ChenBK, et al., 2020. Strongly emissive lead-free 0D Cs₃Cu₂I₅ perovskites synthesized by a room temperature solvent evaporation crystallization for down-conversion light-emitting devices and fluorescent inks. Advanced Optical Materials, 8(8):1901723.

[85]ZhangK, ShenY, CaoLX, et al., 2024. Nondestructive halide exchange via S_N2-like mechanism for efficient blue perovskite light-emitting diodes. Nature Communications, 15(1):10621.

[86]ZhangL, LongR, 2022. Developments and challenges ahead in blue perovskite light-emitting devices. Journal of Energy Chemistry, 71:418-433.

[87]ZhangXT, WangCC, ZhangY, et al., 2019. Bright orange electroluminescence from lead-free two-dimensional perovskites. ACS Energy Letters, 4(1):242-248.

[88]ZhaoBD, VasilopoulouM, FakharuddinA, et al., 2023. Light management for perovskite light-emitting diodes. Nature Nanotechnology, 18(9):981-992.

[89]ZhaoBD, GuoBB, XingSY, et al., 2024. Highly stable perovskite light-emitting diodes. Matter, 7(3):772-793.

[90]ZhaoJP, HanBN, WangJH, et al., 2024. Blue lead-free perovskite derivatives: structural diversity, luminescence properties and light-emitting diode applications. Advanced Optical Materials, 12(19):2400277.

[91]ZhaoSH, YuH, JiaYH, et al., 2024. Postdeposition halide exchange for achieving deep-blue perovskite light-emitting diodes: the role of the organic cations in the chloride source. Small Methods, 8(2):2300572.

[92]ZhengXP, YuanS, LiuJK, et al., 2020. Chlorine vacancy passivation in mixed halide perovskite quantum dots by organic pseudohalides enables efficient Rec. 2020 blue light-emitting diodes. ACS Energy Letters, 5(3):793-798.

[93]ZhuYS, ZhuJY, SongHZ, et al., 2021. Samarium doping improves luminescence efficiency of Cs₃Bi₂Br₉ perovskite quantum dots enabling efficient white light-emitting diodes. Journal of Rare Earths, 39(4):374-379.

[94]ZouC, LiuY, GingerDS, et al., 2020. Suppressing efficiency roll-off at high current densities for ultra-bright green perovskite light-emitting diodes. ACS Nano, 14(5):6076-6086.

Similar articles